I. NAME OF THE BOOK
A. In Hebrew (i.e., the Masoretic Text) it is the first word of the book, bereshith (BDB 912), "in the beginning" or "by way of beginning" or "in the period of creation."
B. From the Greek Bible (i.e., Septuagint translation), it is Genesis, which means "beginning" or "origin," which was taken from Gen. 2:4a. This may be the author's key "outline-phrase" (i.e., "these are the generations of"), or colophon to link the different theological biographies together as the Babylonian cuneiform writers did. This key outline phrase functions as a summation, not an introduction.
II. CANONIZATION
A. This is the first book of the first section of the Hebrew canon called "The Torah" or "teachings" or "Law."
B. This section in the Septuagint is known as the Pentateuch (i.e., five scrolls).
C. It is sometimes called "The Five Books of Moses" in English.
D. Genesis ‒ Deuteronomy is a continuous account by (or edited by) Moses concerning creation through Moses' lifetime.
III. GENRE ‒ The book of Genesis is primarily theological, historical narrative (i.e., chapters. 12-50), but it also includes other types of literary genre (see D. Brent Sandy and Ronald L Giese, Jr., Cracking OT Codes, chapters 1-3):
A. Historical drama ‒ examples: Gen. 1:1-3:24
B. Poetry ‒ examples: Gen. 2:23; 4:23-24; 8:22
C. Prophecy ‒ examples: Gen. 3:15; 49:1ff (also poetic)
IV. AUTHORSHIP
A. The Bible itself does not name the author (as is true of many OT books). Genesis has no "I" sections like Ezra, Nehemiah, or "we" sections like Acts. Ultimately the author is God!
B. Jewish tradition:
1. Ancient Jewish writers say Moses wrote it:
a. Ben Sirah's Ecclesiasticus, 24:23, written about 185 B.C.
b. The Baba Bathra 14b, a part of the Talmud
c. Philo of Alexandria, Egypt, a Jewish philosopher, living about 20 B.C. to A.D. 42
d. Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian, living about A.D. 37-100
2. The Bible itself asserts it was a revelation to Moses
a. Moses is said to have written for the people:
(1) Exodus 17:14
(2) Exodus 24:4, 7
(3) Exodus 34:27, 28
(4) Numbers 33:2
(5) Deuteronomy 31:9, 22, 24-26
b. God is said to have spoken through Moses to the people:
(1) Deuteronomy 5:4-5, 22
(2) Deuteronomy 6:1
(3) Deuteronomy 10:1
c. Moses is said to have spoken the words of the Torah to the people:
(1) Deuteronomy 1:1,3
(2) Deuteronomy 5:1
(3) Deuteronomy 27:1
(4) Deuteronomy 29:2
(5) Deuteronomy 31:1,30
(6) Deuteronomy 32:44
(7) Deuteronomy 33:1
3. OT authors attribute it to Moses:
a. Joshua 8:31
b. 2 Kings 14:6
c. Ezra 6:18
d. Nehemiah 8:1; 13:1-2
e. 2 Chr. 25:4; 34:14; 35:12
f. Daniel 9:11
g. Malachi 4:4
C. Christian tradition
1. Jesus attributes quotes from the Torah to Moses:
a. Matthew 8:4; 19:8
b. Mark 1:44; 7:10; 10:5; 12:26
c. Luke 5:14; 16:31; 20:37; 24:27, 44
d. John 5:46-47; 7:19, 23
2. Other N.T. authors attribute quotes from the Torah to Moses:
a. Luke 2:22
b. Acts 3:22; 13:39; 15:1, 15-21; 26:22; 28:23
c. Romans 10:5, 19
d. 1 Corinthians 9:9
e. 2 Corinthians 3:15
f. Hebrews 10:28
g. Revelation 15:3
3. Most early Church Fathers accepted Mosaic authorship. However, Ireneaus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Tertullian all had questions about Moses' relationship to the current canonical form of Genesis (cf. D. 2.).
D. Modern Scholarship
1. There have obviously been some editorial additions to the Torah (seemingly, to make the ancient work more understandable to contemporary readers, which was a characteristic of Egyptian scribes):
a. Genesis 12:6; 13:7; 14:14; 21:34; 32:32; 36:31; 47:11
b. Exodus 11:3; 16:36
c. Numbers 12:3; 13:22; 15:22-23; 21:14-15; 32:33ff
d. Deuteronomy 3:14; 34:6
e. Ancient scribes were highly trained and educated. Their techniques, however, differed from country to country:
(1) In Mesopotamia, they were careful not to change anything, and even checked their works for accuracy. Here is an ancient Sumerian scribal footnote: "the work is complete from beginning to end, has been copied, revised, compared, and verified sign by sign" from about 1400 B.C.
(2) In Egypt they freely revised ancient texts to update them for contemporary readers. The scribes at Qumran (i.e. Dead Sea Scrolls) followed this approach.
2. Scholars of the 19th century theorized that the Torah is a composite document from many sources over an extended period of time (Graff-Wellhausen). This theory was based on:
a. the different names for God
b. apparent doublets in the text
c. the literary form of the accounts
d. the theology of the accounts
3. Supposed sources and dates:
a. J source (use of YHWH from southern Israel) ‒ 950 B.C.
b. E source (use of Elohim from northern Israel) ‒ 850 B.C.
c. JE combined ‒ 750 B.C.
d. D source ("The Book of the Law," 2 Kgs. 22:8, discovered during Josiah's reform while remodeling the Temple was supposedly the book of Deuteronomy, written by an unknown priest of Josiah's time to support his reform.) ‒ 621 B.C.
e. P source (priestly rewrite of OT, especially ritual and procedure) ‒ 400 B.C.
f. There have obviously been editorial additions to the Torah. The Jews assert that it was
(1) The High Priest (or another of his family) at the time of the writing
(2) Jeremiah the Prophet
(3) Ezra the Scribe ‒ IV Esdras says he rewrote it because the originals were destroyed in the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
g. However, the J. E. D. P. theory says more about our modern literary theories and categories than evidence from the Torah (cf. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 495-541 and Tyndale's Commentaries, "Leviticus" pp. 15-25).
h. Characteristics of Hebrew Literature
(1) Doublets, like Genesis 1 & 2, are common in Hebrew. Usually a general description is given, followed by a specific account (i.e., the Ten Commandments and the Holiness Code). This may have been a way to accent truths or help oral memory.
(2) The ancient rabbis said the two most common names for God have theological significance:
(a) YHWH ‒ the Covenant name for deity as He relates to Israel as Savior and Redeemer (cf. Ps. 19:7-14; 103; see SPECIAL TOPIC: NAMES FOR DEITY, D).
(b) Elohim ‒ deity as Creator, Provider, and Sustainer of all life on earth (cf. Ps. 19:1-6; 104). See Special Topic: Names for Deity, C
(c) Other ancient Near Eastern texts use several names to describe their high god (cf. Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties by Gleason L. Archer, p. 68).
(3) It is common in non-biblical near eastern literature for a variety of styles and vocabulary to occur in unified literary works (cf. Introduction to the Old Testament, R. K. Harrison, pp. 522-526).
E. The evidence from ancient near eastern literature implies that Moses used written cuneiform documents or Mesopotamian style (patriarchal) oral traditions to write Genesis. This in no way means to imply a lessening of inspiration but is an attempt to explain the literary phenomenon of the book of Genesis (cf. P. J. Wiseman's New Discoveries in Babylonia about Genesis). Beginning in Genesis 37, a marked Egyptian influence of style, form and vocabulary seems to indicate Moses used either literary productions or oral traditions from the Israelites' days in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. Moses' formal education was entirely Egyptian! The exact literary formation of the Pentateuch is uncertain. I believe that Moses is the compiler and author of the vast majority of the Pentateuch, though he may have used scribes and/or written and oral (patriarchal) traditions. His writings have been updated by later scribes. The historicity and trustworthiness of these first few books of the OT have been illustrated by modern archaeology. See John H. Walton and D. Brent Sandy, The Lost World of Scripture: Ancient Literary Culture and Biblical Authority.
F. There is an emerging theory that there were scribes (in different parts of Israel) working on different parts of the Pentateuch at the same time under the direction of Samuel (cf. 1 Sam. 10:25). This theory was first proposed by E. Robertson's The Old Testament Problem.
V. DATE
A. Genesis covers the period from the creation of this planet (or to its organization as a functioning place for human life, John H. Walton) to Abraham's family. It is possible to date Abraham's life from secular literature of the period. The approximate date would be 2000 B.C., the second millennium B.C. The basis for this is
1. father acted as priest to family (like Job)
2. life was nomadic following herds and flocks
3. migration of Semitic peoples during this period
B. The early events of Genesis 1-11 are literary events (possibly historical drama) but undatable by current available knowledge.
1. I personally have come to accept the earth's age as 4.6 billion years (i.e., 14.6 billion for the universe, cf. Hugh Ross' The Genesis Question and Creation and Time).
2. However, I also believe in the special creation of Adam and Eve at a much later period. It seems to me that Genesis is presented in some type of "historical" framework, but the historical aspect is fuzzy at the beginning (i.e., Genesis 1-3). Adam and Eve's children begin the civilizations of Mesopotamia (i.e., chapter 4). If this framework is to be maintained then Adam is a modern (Homo sapien) and not a more primitive Homo erectus. If this is true then there must be an evolutionary development in hominids (cf. Tyndale O T Commentaries, "Genesis" by Kidner and Who Was Adam? by Fazale Rana and Hugh Ross) as well as a special creation by God at a much later point in time. I am not completely comfortable with this, but it is the best I can do with my current understanding of the Bible and science. The book that has helped me think about these things is Bernard Ramm, The Christian View of Science and Scripture.
C. It must be remembered when studying Genesis that the historical events are recorded by Moses who led the people of God out of Egypt in either (1) 1445 B.C., based on 1 Kings 6:1; or (2) 1290 B.C., based on evidence from modern archaeology. Therefore, either by oral tradition, unknown written sources, or direct divine revelation, Moses records "how it all began" focusing on "who" and "why of creation," not "how" and "when"! Remember, Moses' education was in royal Egyptian schools.
D. This commentary (Genesis 1-11) was originally written in 2001. I struggled greatly with the relationship between Genesis 1 and my own modern western culture. A new book by John H. Walton, The Lost World of Genesis One, IVP (2009) has helped me see just how influenced I was by my own existential setting. I believe that proper hermeneutics begin with the original author's intent but it is obvious to me that my hermeneutical theory was better than my practice. This book by Walton is a paradigm shift in thinking about Genesis 1 as relating to order and function, not the material origins of the universe. It is truly an eye-opener. It has convinced me of a new way to view this crucial text that bypasses the debate over science vs. faith, old earth vs. young earth, evolution vs. special creation of species. I highly recommend the book to you!
VI. SOURCES FOR CORROBORATING THE HISTORICAL SETTING
A. Other Biblical books
1. Creation ‒ Psalms 8; 19; 33; 50; 104; 148 and the NT (cf. John 1:3; 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:16; Heb. 1:2)
2. Abraham's time ‒ Job
B. Archaeological sources (so many new cuneiform text have been found)
1. Earliest known literary parallel of the cultural setting of Genesis 1-11 is the Ebla cuneiform tablets from northern Syria dating about 2500 B.C., written in Akkadian.
2. Creation
a. The closest Mesopotamian account dealing with creation, Enuma Elish, dating from (1) NIV Study Bible, about 1900-1700 B.C. or (2) John H. Walton's Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, p. 21, about 1000 B.C. It was found in Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh and other copies were found at several other places. There are seven cuneiform tablets written in Akkadian that describe creation by Marduk.
(1) The gods, Apsu (fresh water-male) and Tiamat (salt water-female) had unruly, noisy children. These two gods tried to silence the younger gods.
(2) One of Ea and Damkina's children, Marduk (the chief god of the emerging city of Babylon), defeats Tiamat. He formed the earth and sky from her body.
(3) Ea formed humanity from another defeated god, Kingu, who was the male consort of Tiamat after the death of Apsu. Humanity came from Kingu's blood.
(4) Marduk was made chief of the Babylonian pantheon.
b. "The creation seal" is a cuneiform tablet which is a picture of a naked man and woman beside a fruit tree with a snake wrapped around the tree's trunk and positioned over the woman's shoulder as if talking to her.
The conservative Professor of Archaeology at Wheaton College, Alfred J. Hoerth, says that the seal is now interpreted as referring to prostitution. This is a good example of how artifacts from the past are interpreted differently by individuals and through time. This particular piece of evidence must be re-evaluated.
3. Creation and Flood ‒ The Atrahasis Epic records the rebellion of the lesser gods because of overwork and the creation of seven human couples (from clay, blood, and saliva) to perform the duties of these lesser gods. Humans were destroyed because of: (1) over population and (2) noise. Human beings were reduced in number by a plague, two famines and finally a flood, planned by Enlil. Atrahasis builds a boat and brings animals on board in order to save them from the waters. These major events are seen in the same order in Genesis 1-8. This cuneiform composition dates from about the same time as Enuma Elish and the Gilgamesh Epic, about 1900-1700 B.C. All are in Akkadian.
4. Noah's flood
a. A Sumerian tablet from Nippur, called Eridu Genesis, dating from about 1600 B.C., tells about Ziusudra and a coming flood.
(1) Enka, the water god, warns Ziusudra of a coming flood.
(2) Ziusudra, a king-priest, believes this revelation and builds a huge square boat and stocks it with all kinds of seeds.
(3) The flood lasted seven days.
(4) Ziusudra opened a window on the boat and released several birds to see if dry land had appeared.
(5) He also offered a sacrifice of an ox and sheep when he left the boat.
b. A composite Babylonian flood account from four Sumerian tablets, known as the Gilgamesh Epic originally dating from about 2500-2400 B.C., although the written composite form in cuneiform Akkadian, is much later (ca. 1900-1700 B.C.). It tells about a flood survivor, Utnapishtim, who tells Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, how he survived the great flood and was granted eternal life.
(1) Ea, the water god, warns of a coming flood and tells Utnapishtim (Babylonian form of Ziusudra) to build a boat.
(2) Utnapishtim and his family, along with selected healing plants, survived the flood.
(3) The flood lasted seven days.
(4) The boat came to rest in northern Persia, on Mt. Nisir.
(5) He sent out 3 different birds to see if dry land had yet appeared.
5. The Mesopotamian literature which describes an ancient flood are all drawing from the same source. The names often vary, but the plot is the same. An example is that Zivusudra, Atrahasis and Utnapishtim all represent the same human king.
6. The historical parallels to the early events of Genesis can be explained in light of mankind's pre-dispersion (Genesis 1-11) knowledge and experience of God. These true historical core memories have been elaborated and mythologicalized into the current flood accounts common throughout the world. The same can also be said not only of creation (Genesis1; 2) and the Flood (Genesis 6-9) but also of human and angelic unions (Genesis 6).
7. Patriarch's Day (Middle Bronze)
a. Mari tablets ‒ cuneiform legal (Ammonite culture) and personal texts in Akkadian from about 1700 B.C.
b. Nuzi tablets ‒ cuneiform archives of certain families (Horite or Hurrian culture) written in Akkadian from about 100 miles SE of Nineveh about 1500-1300 B.C. They record family and business procedures. For further specific examples, see John H. Walton's Ancient Israelite Literature in its Cultural Context, pp. 52-58
c. Alalak tablets ‒ cuneiform texts from Northern Syria from about 2000 B.C.
d. Some of the names found in Genesis are recorded as place names in the Mari Tablets: Serug, Peleg, Terah, and Nahor. Other biblical names were also common: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Laban, and Joseph. This shows that biblical names fit this time and place.
8. "Comparative historiographic studies have shown that, along with the Hittites, the ancient Hebrews were the most accurate, objective and responsible recorders of near eastern history." R. K Harrison, Biblical Criticism, p 5.
9. Archaeology has proven to be so helpful in establishing the historicity of the Bible. However, a word of caution is necessary. Archaeology is not an absolutely trustworthy guide because of
a. poor techniques in early excavations
b. various, very subjective interpretations of the artifacts that have been discovered
c. no agreed-upon chronology of the ancient Near East (although one is being developed from tree rings and pottery).
C. Egyptian creation accounts can be found in John H. Walton's, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1990) pp. 23-24, 32-34; also see Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible
1. In Egyptian literature, creation began with an unstructured, chaotic, primeval water. Creation was seen as a developing structure (hill) out of watery chaos.
2. In Egyptian literature from Memphis, creation occurred by the spoken word of Ptah.
3. Each of the major cities of Egypt had separate traditions emphasizing their patron deities.
D. A new book by John H. Walton, The Lost World of Genesis One; Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate, IVP, 2009, shows the relationship between the ANE beliefs about the divine and the cosmos in a new light. He asserts (and I agree) that it is not so much who copied who but the general cultural consensus of the whole ANE about the unity of the "natural" and "supernatural." All cultures shared this general perspective. Israel's was uniquely monotheistic but also shared the cultural perspectives.
SPECIAL TOPIC: MONOTHEISM
VII. LITERARY UNITS (CONTEXT)
A. Outline based on Moses' use of the phrase "the generations of" (toledoth):
1. origins of heaven and earth, Gen. 1:1-2:3
2. origins of humanity, Gen. 2:4-4:26
3. generations of Adam, Gen. 5:1-6:8
4. generations of Noah, Gen. 6:9-9:17
5. generations of the sons of Noah, Gen. 10:1-11:9
6. generations of Shem, Gen. 11:10-26
7. generations of Terah (Abraham), Gen. 11:27-25:11
8. generations of Ishmael, Gen. 25:12-18
9. generations of Isaac, Gen. 25:19-35:29
10. generations of Esau, Gen. 36:1-8
11. generations of the sons of Esau, Gen. 36:9-43
12. generations of Jacob, Gen. 37:1-50:26 (#1-11 have a Mesopotamian literary background but #12 has an Egyptian literary flavor.)
B. Theological outline:
1. creation for humanity and of humanity, Genesis 1-2
2. mankind and creation fall, Genesis 3
3. results of the Fall, Genesis 4-11
a. evil affects Cain and his family
b. evil affects Seth and his family
c. evil affects everyone
d. great flood
e. evil still present in Noah's family
f. mankind still in rebellion; the tower of Babel
g. God's dispersion
4. One man for all humanity (Gen. 3:15), Genesis 12-50 (Rom. 5:12-21)
a. Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3), Gen. 11:27-23:20
b. Isaac, Gen. 24:1-26:35
c. Jacob, Gen. 27:1-36:4
(1) Judah (the line of the Messiah)
(2) Joseph (double land inheritance), Gen. 37:1-50:26
VIII. MAIN TRUTHS
A. How did it all begin?
1. It began with God (Genesis 1-2). The Bible's world-view is not polytheism but monotheism. It does not focus on the "how" of creation but on the "who." It is short, but so powerful in its presentation. The Bible's theology was totally unique in its day though some of the words, patterns of activities, and topics are found in other Mesopotamian literature.
2. God wanted fellowship. The creation is only a stage for God to fellowship with man. This is a "touched planet" (cf. C. S. Lewis).
3. There is no possibility of understanding the rest of the Bible without Genesis 1,2-4 and 11-12.
4. Humans must respond by faith to what they understand of God's will (Gen. 15:6 and Romans 4).
B. Why is the world so evil and unfair? It was "very good" (Gen. 1:31), but Adam and Eve sinned (cf. Genesis 3; Rom. 3:9-18,23; 5:17-21). The terrible results are obvious:
1. Cain kills Abel (Genesis 4)
2. revenge of Lamech (Gen. 4:23-24)
3. unlawful unions (Gen. 6:1-4)
4. wickedness of man (Gen. 6:5,11-12; 8:21)
5. the drunkenness of Noah (Genesis 9)
6. descendants of Noah's sons (Genesis 10)
7. Tower of Babel (Genesis 11)
C. How is God going to fix it?
1. Messiah will come for all humans (Gen. 3:15)
2. God calls one to call all (Gen. 12:1-3 and Exod. 19:5-6, cf. Rom. 5:12-21)
3. God is willing to work with fallen mankind (Adam, Eve, Cain, Noah, Abraham, the Jews and Gentiles) and by His grace provides
a. promises
b. covenants (unconditional and conditional)
c. sacrifice
d. worship
(Dr. Utley has provided his Bible study material in several media formats. The written commentaries were mostly done while Dr. Utley was Professor of Hermeneutics at East Texas Baptist University between 1987-2003. He finished the whole Bible in 2019. They represent his latest theological thoughts.)
Originally from: www.freebiblecommentary.org
I. 书名
A．在希伯来语中 (也就是马所礼经文) 它是这本书的第一个词, bereshith, “在 起初” 或 “从开始.”
B. 在旧约圣经希腊文译本中 (也就是七十士译本), 它是Genesis, 意思是“开始” 或“起源,” 节选自创世纪 2:4。 这也许是作者的主要 “概述短语” 或者是用来连接不同神学传记的版本标记，正如巴比伦楔形文作者所为。这种概述短语起到总结概括而不是介绍的作用。
II. 正典圣经
A. 这是希伯来正典圣经的第一部分，被称为首五卷或教训与律法书。
B. 这部分在旧约圣经的希腊文译本中被叫做五经 (也就是首五卷)。
C. 它有时在英文中被叫做摩西五经
D. 创世纪-申命记是摩西关于创世的续写或续编，这个过程贯穿摩西的一生。
III. 文学类型 – 创世纪主要是采用神学历史叙事性形式但也包括其他的文学形式：
A. 历史戏剧 – 例如: 1:1- 2:3
B. 诗歌 – 例如: 2:23; 4:2; 8:22
C. 预言 – 例如: 3:15; 49:1（也富有诗意)
IV. 原创作者
A. 圣经本身并没有提及作者 (正如许多旧约各书). 创世纪也没有出现 “我” 。 这不像其他各部分，比如以斯拉记，尼希米记，或出现“我们”的部分，比如使徒行传。从根本上讲作者就是上帝本身！
B. 犹太人的传统:
1. 古代犹太作家认为是摩西所著:
a. 便西拉智训, 24:23, 著于公元前185年
b. The Baba Bathra 14b, 他勒目犹太法典的一部分
c. Philo of Alexandria,埃及,犹太哲学家,公元前20年至公元后42年
d. Flavius Josephus,犹太历史学家,公元后37年至100年
2. 这是对摩西的启示
a.据说摩西曾为人民写作:
(1) 出埃及记17:14
(2) 出埃及记24:4, 7
(3) 出埃及记34:27, 28
(4) 民数记 33:2
(5) 申命记 31:9, 22, 24-26
b. 据说上帝通过摩西对人民讲话:
(1) 申命记5:4-5, 22
(2) 申命记6:1
(3) 申命记10:1
c. 据说摩西曾对人民讲说律法书:
(1) 申命记1:1, 3
(2) 申命记5:1
(3) 申命记27:1
(4) 申命记29:2
(5) 申命记31:1, 30
(6) 申命记32:44
(7) 申命记33:1
3.旧约作者对摩西著书的认同:
a. 约书亚记 8:31
b. 列王记下 14:6
c. 以斯拉记 6:18
d. 尼希米记 8:1; 13:1-2
e. 历代志上 25:4; 34:12; 35:12
f. 但以理书9:11
g. 玛拉基书 4:4
C. 基督教传统
1. 耶稣对律法书中的引用显示认同摩西的作者身份:
a. 马太福音 8:4; 19:8 b. 马可福音 1:44; 7:10; 10:5; 12:26
c. 路加福音 5:14; 16:31; 20:37; 24:27, 44
d. 约翰福音 5:46-47; 7:19, 23
2. 其他新约作者仍把律法书中引用认同为摩西所著:
a.路加福音2:22
b.使徒行传3:22; 13:39; 15:1, 15-21; 26:22; 28:23
c.罗马书 10:5, 19
d.哥林多前书 9:9
e.哥林多后书 3:15
f.希伯来书 10:28
g.启示录 15:3
3. 大部分早期教会创始人都接受摩西的作者身份. 然而, Ireneaus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Tertullian 对现在创世纪规范形式与摩西作者身份的关系都有疑问(参见. D. 2. 第五页).
D.现代学者身份
1. 对于律法书很显然有一些编辑增加(可能是为了使古代的著作更容易被当代读者理解, 这是埃及文士的写作特点):
a. 创世纪 12:6; 13:7; 14:14; 21:34; 32:32; 36:31; 47:11
b. 出埃及记 11:3; 16:36
c. 民数记 12:3; 13:22; 15:22-23; 21:14-15; 32:33ff
d. 申命记 3:14; 34:6
e. 古代文士受过很高的培训和教育. 然而他们的技术却在不同国家都有所不 同:
(1) 在美索不达米亚,他们非常小心不要对原著有任何改变，而且对他们
自己所著的作品的准确性进行检查。这里有一个古代闪族文士的注脚: “工作从头到尾已经完成, 已经被抄写,校订, 对比, 并且逐字查实” 公元前1400年
(2) 在埃及文士则随意修改以便当代的读者理解. 古木兰的抄写文士(也就是死海古卷) 遵循了这种方法。
2. 19世纪学者持有这种理论。律法书是在一个长期的时间里由不同来源的文献 组成的(Graff-Wellhausen)。这种理论是基于:
a. 对上帝的不同称谓
b. 经文中明显的对称
c. 叙述的文学体裁
d. 叙述神学理论体系
3. 推测的来源和日期:
a. J 来源 (用 YHWH 来自南部以色列) - 公元前950
b. E 来源 (用 Elohim 来自北部以色列) - 公元前850
c. JE 来源组合 –公元前750
d. D 来源 (“The Book of the Law,” 列王纪 22:8, 发现于约西亚改革时期当时重建圣殿，被认为是申命记，由一名约西亚时期的匿名祭司所著以支持他的改革。) –公元前621
e. P 来源 (祭司对旧约圣经的改写, 特别是宗教的仪式和程序) –公元前400年
f. 很显然对律法书有编辑增加. 犹太教主张它是；
(1) 是当时成书时期的大祭司 (或另一位家庭成员)
(2) 是先知耶利米
(3) 是文士以斯拉 -以斯得拉书IV（圣经外典的最初二书之一）记载他重写此书是因为原书于公元前586年在耶路撒冷陷落时被毁。
g. 然而, J. E. D. P. 理论对于我们现代文学理论和分类讨论的更多而不是对律法书的证据(参见. R. K. Harrison, 《旧约圣经简介》, 页码 495-541 和Tyndale的《注解》, “利未记”页码 15-25).
h. 希伯来文学的特点
(1)对称, 比如创世纪1章,2章 在希伯来文学中是普遍的. 经常先给出一个大体的描述, 紧跟着就给出一个详细的解释 (也就是十戒和神圣法典). 这也许是一种帮助强调事实和口头记忆的方法。
(2) 古代拉比认为有两个最常用的上帝的称谓有着重要的神学意义
(a) YHWH 耶和华- 神的立约称谓。因神对与以色列来说是救世主和救赎 主(参见附言， 19:7-14; 103).
(b) Elohim – 神作为地上一切生命的创造者，供应者和维持着。(参见附言. 19:1-6; 104).
(c) 其他古代近东文献用多个称谓来称呼他们的主神。(参见 Gleason L. Archer所著的Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties p. 68) 《圣经问题百科全书》页码68.
(3)一系列不同 文学风格和词汇出现在一个统一文学著作中，这在近东非圣经文学中是很普遍的。(参见《旧约圣经简介》Introduction to the OldTestament, 作者R. K. Harrison, 页码 522-526).
E. 古代近东文学证据暗示摩西使用了楔形文或美索不达米亚风格（族长式）口述传统书写了创世纪。这并没有丝毫减损启示的意味而是试图来解释创世纪一书的文学现象。 (参见 P. J. Wiseman所著的New Discoveries in Babylonia about Genesis) 《创世纪的巴比伦新发现》。 创世纪第一章起初， 37, 有显著受埃及文学影响的风格，形式，词汇，好像意味着摩西运用了当时以色列人在埃及和美索不达米亚的文学写作手法和口述传统。摩西的正规教育是完全埃及化的。摩西五经确切的文学形式是不确定的。我相信摩西是汇编者和摩西五经绝大部分的作者，尽管他也许曾用过文士或书面和口头（族长式）传统。他的写作曾被文士修改。旧约圣经的史实性和可信性已经被现代考古学所证明。
F. 出现一种新兴的理论： 有(在以色列不同地区的)文士们在撒母耳指挥下同时致力 于摩西五经不同部分的写作。 (参见撒母耳记上 10:25)。 此理论最初由E. Robertson在The Old Testament Problem《旧约问题》一书中提出。
V. 日期
A. 创世纪记述了从宇宙的创造一直到亚伯拉罕的家族的一段历史。 从此阶段的世 俗文学著作可以推算亚伯拉罕生活的时期。大致的年代应该是公元前2000年。 公元前第二度千禧年。根据如下：
1.父亲为家庭祭司 (比如约伯)
2.跟随动物种群过游牧生活
3.在此阶段闪族人的大迁徙
B. 创世纪1-11事件是真实的历史事件(也许是基于史实的剧目) 但不能通过现有 的知识推算它的年代。
1.我个人相信地球的年代为几十亿年 (也就是宇宙为146亿年，地球为46亿年 , 参见 Hugh Ross的The Genesis Question《创世纪问题》 和 Creation and Time《创造和时间》).
2.然而, 对亚当和夏娃的创造是在一个更晚的时期。
对我来讲创世纪好像是以某种对历史的概述呈现的，但从历史方面讲，最初是模糊的(参见创世纪 1-3)。亚当和夏娃的后代创造了美索不达米亚的文化(也就是第四章)。 如果这种概述的理论能继续下去，那么亚当就是现代的 (智人) 并且不是一个更加原始的能直立行走的人。如果这个理论是真实的， 那么一定存在人类的进化。 (参见 廷代尔Tyndale O TCommentaries《旧约注释》, Kidner所著的《创世》，和Fazale Rana and Hugh Ross所著Who Was Adam《谁是亚当》）并且也一定存在一个更晚些时候的上帝的特殊创造。我并不完全信服这一点,但是在依据我对圣经和科学的现有理解能力，我只能做到这些。
C. 一定要记住， 当学习创世纪时，历史事件由带领上帝子民出埃及的摩西记录于
(1) 公元前1445年, 根据列王纪上 6:1; 或(2)于公元前1290年， 根据现代考
4 古学的证据。因此, 或由口述传统，,未知文献来源，或直接来自神的启示，摩 西记载一切如何开始，强调“是谁”和“为什么”，而不是“如何”开始和“什么时候”开始
D.此注释 (创世纪 1-11) 最初写于2001年. 我苦苦挣扎于创世纪第一章和我自己深受影响的西方文化之间. 一本新书由 John H. Walton所著, The Lost World of Genesis One, 《创世第一章的堕落世界》IVP (2009) 帮我看到我如何深受自己现有的文化背景的影响。. 我相信正确的释经应以原作者的初衷为出发点。 但对我来说，这很明显我的释经理论要好过我的实际操作。Walton的这部书对于创世纪第一章的理解，对我来说是一个思维模式的转变。此书谈到宇宙运行功能的起源,而不是宇宙物质的起源，真是大开人的眼界。它是我确信要以一种新的角度来看待这至关重要的经文 ，并使我超越了一切争论之上： 科学对信仰，古老的地球对年轻的地球，物种的进化还是创造。我强烈向你推荐这本书。
VI.证实历史背景的信息来源
A. 圣经其他部分各书
1. 创世纪- 诗篇 8; 19; 33; 50; 104; 148 and the NT新约全书 (参见. 约翰福音 1:3; 哥林多前书. 8:6; 歌罗西书 1:16; 希伯来书. 1:2)
2. 亚伯拉罕的年代 – 约伯记
B. 考古学来源
1. 我们所知到的创世纪1-11文化背景中的文学平行形式出现在北部叙利亚的楔形文版，可追溯到公元前2500年，以上古美索不达米亚的阿卡德语书写而成。
2. 创造
a.最近的美索不达米亚关于创造的描述, Enuma Elish, 可追溯到(1) NIV 新国际版研读本圣经,大约在公元前 1900-1700 或(2) John H. Walton所著Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, 《其背景文化下的古代以色列文学》页码 21, 大约公元前1000年。此书发现于尼尼 微的亚述巴尼帕图书馆 。其他的版本被发现于另外的几个地方。有七个阿卡德语版描述了Marduk（巴比伦人的主神）马杜克的创造。
(1) 诸神, Apsu (淡水—男性) and Tiamat (咸水—女性) 有着不守规矩，吵吵闹闹的孩子。这两位神尽力使年幼的诸神安静下来。
(2) Ea 和 Damkina的其中一个孩子, Marduk (巴比伦大城崛起的主神), 打败了Tiamat. 他用自己的身体形成了大地与天空。
(3) Ea从另外一位战败之神形成了人类, Kingu, 他是Apsu死后Tiamat 的男伴 。人类由他的血液形成。
(4) Marduk被尊为巴比伦神庙的主神。.
b. “创世印章” 是一个楔形文版，刻有一个裸体男人和女人在一棵果树旁并有一蛇缠绕于树干且倾身于女人肩头，好像在与之交谈。威顿学院的一位保守的考古学教授Alfred J.Hoerth, 说这个印章现在被理解为性交易。这是一个很好的例子来说明过去的历史文物是如何被不同历史时期
5 和不同个体理解为不同含义的。 这个个别的证据必须被从新评估。
3. 创造和洪水- The Atrahasis Epic阿特拉哈西斯史诗记载了次等诸神因为超负荷的工作而反叛还有对七对男女的创造(用土，血和唾液) 来使他们完成 次神的工作。人类被毁灭因为 (1) 人口过剩 (2) 吵闹. 人类在数量上被大大减少是由于Enlil引起的一次瘟疫，两次饥荒和最终的大洪水。阿特拉哈西斯建了一艘船 并且把动物带上船以使他们脱离洪水。 这些主要事件也以同样的顺序出现在创世纪1-8章。 此楔形文可追溯到大约 与Enuma Elish和 the Gilgamesh 史诗的同时代, 大约公元前1900-1700 年。全部由阿卡 德语写成。
4. 诺亚时期的洪水
a. 来自于尼普尔的一个闪族语版叫做Eridu Genesis,埃里度创世纪。始于公 元前1600年，讲述了Ziusudra 朱宿德拉和即将来临的大洪水。
(1) Enka,水神, 警告 Ziusudra 洪水要来
(2) Ziusudra, 大祭司, 相信这样的启示并建造了一个巨大方舟，也在船上储藏了各种种子。
(3) 洪水持续七天。
(4) Ziusudra开了船上的一扇窗并放飞了几只鸟要看看是否干地已浮出水面。
(5) 当他离开船的时候他也用公牛和绵羊献了祭 。
b.始于公元前2500-2400的四个闪族语版讲述了一个合成的巴比伦洪水被称 为Gilgamesh Epic吉尔伽美什史诗，尽管阿卡德语楔形文的合成书写模式 很晚才出现 (大约公元前1900-1700年.)。 它讲述了一个洪水的幸者 Utnapishtim, 他告诉吉尔伽美什,乌鲁克国王, 他是如何在洪水中幸存下来并被赐予永生的。.
(1)Ea, 水神, 警告Utnapishtim(巴比伦版的 Ziusudra)即将来临的大洪水并让其造船。
(2) Utnapishtim 和他的家人, 带着选好的有医病功效的植物在洪水中幸存下来。
(3) 洪水持续七日。
(4)船停靠于北部波斯, 在尼西尔山上。.
(5)他放出三种不同的鸟，要看看旱地有没有出现。
5. 描述古代大洪水的美索不达米亚文学作品都起源于一处。 名字经常有所不同但情节都是一样的。 例如Zivusudra, Atrahasis and Utnapishtim 全都代表同一位人类国王。
6. 与创世纪对应的早期历史事件是可以被解释的。因为人类有被驱散在全地之前的记忆和经历上帝的记忆 (创世纪 1-11)这些真实的历史核心记忆已经被复杂化和神秘化而转变成今天的各种洪水传说，在全世界广为流传。 不仅在创世（创世纪1,2） 和大洪水（创世纪6-9），人类和天使的联姻也 如法炮制（创世纪6）。
7. 族长时代 (青铜时代中期)
a. 毛伊岛版 – 阿卡德语的楔形文律法(亚扪人文化)和个人文献 始于公元前1700年
b. 努及尼版 – 特别家族的阿卡德语楔形文档案 (Horit e何立人或Hurrian 胡里安人文化)出土于尼尼微东南100米，大约制于公元前 1500-1300年。 这些古版记述了家族史和交易过程参看 John H. Walton所著的《其背景 文化下的古代以色列文学》Ancient Israelite Literature in its Cultural Context, 页码 52-58
c. Alalak阿拉拉孔版 – 出土于北部叙利亚的，公元前2000年的楔形文文 献
d. 创世纪中出现的人名在毛伊岛版中被记载为地名: Serug, Peleg, Terah, and Nahor. 其他圣经中的名字也普遍出现: Abraham亚伯拉罕, Isaac以撒, Jacob雅各, Laban拉班, 和 Joseph约瑟 夫。这说明圣经中的名字于这个地点和时间是切合的。
8. “比较历史学研究显示, 和希泰族一样, 古代希伯来人对近东历史的记载是 最准确, 客观，和负责的。” R. K Harrison所著Biblical Criticism《圣经评论》页码
9.考古学在证明圣经的史实方面起到了非常大的作用。然而，谨慎是必要的。 考古学并不是绝对可靠的指南，因为:
a. 早期挖掘中技术落后
b. 对所发现文物存在各种各样的主观的解释。
c. 没有一致认同的古代近东年历 (尽管现有一个依据树木年轮和陶器推算出来的)，
C. 在John H. Walton所著的《其背景文化下的古代以色列文学》Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context 中提到埃及的创造描述 (大急流城, MI: 出版社, 1990) 页码23-24, 32-34.
1.在埃及文学中, 创造是从无序混乱原始的水开始的。创造被理解为从水的混乱中发展一种有条理的构造。
2.在孟菲斯的埃及文学作品中,创造始于Ptah（普塔埃及人尊奉的孟菲斯城主神）所说的话。
3.每一个埃及大城都有各自的保护神。
D. John H. Walton的一本新书, 世纪一章的堕落世界, IVP, 2009,以一种新的角度展现古代近东信仰关于神明和宇宙的关系。他断言 (我同意) 这并不是谁抄袭谁的问题，而一种普遍的文化一致性，是整个古代近东关于自然和超自然统 一体的认识。所有的文化里都存在这一普遍的观念。唯独以色列是一神论， 但也同时存在这种文化观念。
VII. 文学单位 (语境)
A.概述基于摩西所使用的词组 “世系” (toledoth):
1. 天地的起源, 1:1-2:3
2. 人类的起源, 2:4-4:26
3. 亚当的世系, 5:1-6:8
4. 诺亚的世系, 6:9-9:17
5. 诺亚儿子的世系, 10:1-11:9
6. 闪的世系, 11:10-26
7. 他拉的世系(亚伯拉罕), 11:27-25:11
8. 以实玛利的世系, 25:12-18
9. 以撒的世系, 25:19-35:29
10.以扫的世系36:1-8
11.以扫儿子的世系, 36:9-43
12.雅各的世系, 37:1-50:26 (#1-11 带有美索不达米亚文学背景但 #12 有埃及的文学风格)
B. 神学概述
1. 为人类和对人类的创造, 1-2
2. 人类和受造物的堕落, 3
3. 堕落的结果, 4-11
a. 罪恶对该隐和他家族的影响
b. 罪恶对赛特和他家族的影响
c. 罪恶影响每个人
d. 大洪水
e. 罪恶仍然在诺亚家族中出现
f.人类仍然背叛; 巴别塔
g. 上帝对人类的驱散
4. 一人为全人类 (创世纪3:15), 12-50 (罗马书 5:12-21)
a.亚伯拉罕 (12:1-3), 11:27-23:20
b.以撒, 24:1-26:35
c.雅各, 27:1-36:4
(1) 犹大 (弥赛亚支派)
(2) 约瑟夫 (双重土地的继承), 37:1-50:26
VIII.主要事实
A. 一切如何开始?
1. 从上帝开始 (创世纪 1-2). 圣经的世界观不是多神论而是一神论。它并不强调如何开始创造 ，而是强调谁创造。 它很短, 但表现力如此强大。在当时历史背景下圣经的神学概念是非常独特的，尽管某些词汇，活动形式，和话题在其他美索不达米亚文学作品中也有所体现。
2. 上帝想要有亲密关系。 创造只是上帝和人建立亲密关系的第一步。 这是一个 “有情的星球” (参见 C. S. Lewis).
3. 没有创世纪1,2-4，11-12的理解，谈不上对圣经其余部分的理解。
4. 人类必须用信心来回应他们对上帝旨意的理解 (创世纪. 15:6 和罗马书 4).
B. 为什么世界如此邪恶和不公? 它曾经是 “好的” (1:31),但亚当和夏娃犯罪了 8 9
(参见创世纪 3; 罗马书. 3:9-18,23; 5:17-21). 可怕的结果非常明显：
1. 该隐杀亚伯 ( 4)
2. 拉麦的复仇 (4:23-24)
3. 非法的联姻(6:1-4)
4.人的邪恶 (6:5,11-12; 8:21)
5. 诺亚的醉酒 (9)
6. 巴别塔 (11)
7. 吾珥的多神信仰(11)
C.上帝将如何修复这一切。
1. 弥赛亚将要为全人类而来(3:15)
2. 上帝召唤一位去召唤所有人类(创世纪 12:1-3 和出埃及记. 19:5-6, 参见 罗马书 5:12-21)
3. 上帝愿意透过堕落的人类来工作(亚当，夏娃, 该隐, 诺亚, 亚伯拉罕，犹太人和外邦人) 并且上帝透过恩典来供应。
4.a. 承诺
b. 盟约 (有条件的和无条件的)
c. 献祭
d. 敬拜
释经学|创世纪系列1： 创世纪简介（上）
I. NAME OF THE BOOK
A. In Hebrew (i.e., the Masoretic Text) it is the first word of the book, bereshith (BDB 912), "in the beginning" or "by way of beginning" or "in the period of creation."
B. From the Greek Bible (i.e., Septuagint translation), it is Genesis, which means "beginning" or "origin," which was taken from Gen. 2:4a. This may be the author's key "outline-phrase" (i.e., "these are the generations of"), or colophon to link the different theological biographies together as the Babylonian cuneiform writers did. This key outline phrase functions as a summation, not an introduction.
II. CANONIZATION
A. This is the first book of the first section of the Hebrew canon called "The Torah" or "teachings" or "Law."
B. This section in the Septuagint is known as the Pentateuch (i.e., five scrolls).
C. It is sometimes called "The Five Books of Moses" in English.
D. Genesis ‒ Deuteronomy is a continuous account by (or edited by) Moses concerning creation through Moses' lifetime.
III. GENRE ‒ The book of Genesis is primarily theological, historical narrative (i.e., chapters. 12-50), but it also includes other types of literary genre (see D. Brent Sandy and Ronald L Giese, Jr., Cracking OT Codes, chapters 1-3):
A. Historical drama ‒ examples: Gen. 1:1-3:24
B. Poetry ‒ examples: Gen. 2:23; 4:23-24; 8:22
C. Prophecy ‒ examples: Gen. 3:15; 49:1ff (also poetic)
IV. AUTHORSHIP
A. The Bible itself does not name the author (as is true of many OT books). Genesis has no "I" sections like Ezra, Nehemiah, or "we" sections like Acts. Ultimately the author is God!
B. Jewish tradition:
1. Ancient Jewish writers say Moses wrote it:
a. Ben Sirah's Ecclesiasticus, 24:23, written about 185 B.C.
b. The Baba Bathra 14b, a part of the Talmud
c. Philo of Alexandria, Egypt, a Jewish philosopher, living about 20 B.C. to A.D. 42
d. Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian, living about A.D. 37-100
2. The Bible itself asserts it was a revelation to Moses
a. Moses is said to have written for the people:
(1) Exodus 17:14
(2) Exodus 24:4, 7
(3) Exodus 34:27, 28
(4) Numbers 33:2
(5) Deuteronomy 31:9, 22, 24-26
b. God is said to have spoken through Moses to the people:
(1) Deuteronomy 5:4-5, 22
(2) Deuteronomy 6:1
(3) Deuteronomy 10:1
c. Moses is said to have spoken the words of the Torah to the people:
(1) Deuteronomy 1:1,3
(2) Deuteronomy 5:1
(3) Deuteronomy 27:1
(4) Deuteronomy 29:2
(5) Deuteronomy 31:1,30
(6) Deuteronomy 32:44
(7) Deuteronomy 33:1
3. OT authors attribute it to Moses:
a. Joshua 8:31
b. 2 Kings 14:6
c. Ezra 6:18
d. Nehemiah 8:1; 13:1-2
e. 2 Chr. 25:4; 34:14; 35:12
f. Daniel 9:11
g. Malachi 4:4
C. Christian tradition
1. Jesus attributes quotes from the Torah to Moses:
a. Matthew 8:4; 19:8
b. Mark 1:44; 7:10; 10:5; 12:26
c. Luke 5:14; 16:31; 20:37; 24:27, 44
d. John 5:46-47; 7:19, 23
2. Other N.T. authors attribute quotes from the Torah to Moses:
a. Luke 2:22
b. Acts 3:22; 13:39; 15:1, 15-21; 26:22; 28:23
c. Romans 10:5, 19
d. 1 Corinthians 9:9
e. 2 Corinthians 3:15
f. Hebrews 10:28
g. Revelation 15:3
3. Most early Church Fathers accepted Mosaic authorship. However, Ireneaus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Tertullian all had questions about Moses' relationship to the current canonical form of Genesis (cf. D. 2.).
D. Modern Scholarship
1. There have obviously been some editorial additions to the Torah (seemingly, to make the ancient work more understandable to contemporary readers, which was a characteristic of Egyptian scribes):
a. Genesis 12:6; 13:7; 14:14; 21:34; 32:32; 36:31; 47:11
b. Exodus 11:3; 16:36
c. Numbers 12:3; 13:22; 15:22-23; 21:14-15; 32:33ff
d. Deuteronomy 3:14; 34:6
e. Ancient scribes were highly trained and educated. Their techniques, however, differed from country to country:
(1) In Mesopotamia, they were careful not to change anything, and even checked their works for accuracy. Here is an ancient Sumerian scribal footnote: "the work is complete from beginning to end, has been copied, revised, compared, and verified sign by sign" from about 1400 B.C.
(2) In Egypt they freely revised ancient texts to update them for contemporary readers. The scribes at Qumran (i.e. Dead Sea Scrolls) followed this approach.
2. Scholars of the 19th century theorized that the Torah is a composite document from many sources over an extended period of time (Graff-Wellhausen). This theory was based on:
a. the different names for God
b. apparent doublets in the text
c. the literary form of the accounts
d. the theology of the accounts
3. Supposed sources and dates:
a. J source (use of YHWH from southern Israel) ‒ 950 B.C.
b. E source (use of Elohim from northern Israel) ‒ 850 B.C.
c. JE combined ‒ 750 B.C.
d. D source ("The Book of the Law," 2 Kgs. 22:8, discovered during Josiah's reform while remodeling the Temple was supposedly the book of Deuteronomy, written by an unknown priest of Josiah's time to support his reform.) ‒ 621 B.C.
e. P source (priestly rewrite of OT, especially ritual and procedure) ‒ 400 B.C.
f. There have obviously been editorial additions to the Torah. The Jews assert that it was
(1) The High Priest (or another of his family) at the time of the writing
(2) Jeremiah the Prophet
(3) Ezra the Scribe ‒ IV Esdras says he rewrote it because the originals were destroyed in the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
g. However, the J. E. D. P. theory says more about our modern literary theories and categories than evidence from the Torah (cf. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 495-541 and Tyndale's Commentaries, "Leviticus" pp. 15-25).
h. Characteristics of Hebrew Literature
(1) Doublets, like Genesis 1 & 2, are common in Hebrew. Usually a general description is given, followed by a specific account (i.e., the Ten Commandments and the Holiness Code). This may have been a way to accent truths or help oral memory.
(2) The ancient rabbis said the two most common names for God have theological significance:
(a) YHWH ‒ the Covenant name for deity as He relates to Israel as Savior and Redeemer (cf. Ps. 19:7-14; 103; see SPECIAL TOPIC: NAMES FOR DEITY, D).
(b) Elohim ‒ deity as Creator, Provider, and Sustainer of all life on earth (cf. Ps. 19:1-6; 104). See Special Topic: Names for Deity, C
(c) Other ancient Near Eastern texts use several names to describe their high god (cf. Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties by Gleason L. Archer, p. 68).
(3) It is common in non-biblical near eastern literature for a variety of styles and vocabulary to occur in unified literary works (cf. Introduction to the Old Testament, R. K. Harrison, pp. 522-526).
E. The evidence from ancient near eastern literature implies that Moses used written cuneiform documents or Mesopotamian style (patriarchal) oral traditions to write Genesis. This in no way means to imply a lessening of inspiration but is an attempt to explain the literary phenomenon of the book of Genesis (cf. P. J. Wiseman's New Discoveries in Babylonia about Genesis). Beginning in Genesis 37, a marked Egyptian influence of style, form and vocabulary seems to indicate Moses used either literary productions or oral traditions from the Israelites' days in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. Moses' formal education was entirely Egyptian! The exact literary formation of the Pentateuch is uncertain. I believe that Moses is the compiler and author of the vast majority of the Pentateuch, though he may have used scribes and/or written and oral (patriarchal) traditions. His writings have been updated by later scribes. The historicity and trustworthiness of these first few books of the OT have been illustrated by modern archaeology. See John H. Walton and D. Brent Sandy, The Lost World of Scripture: Ancient Literary Culture and Biblical Authority.
F. There is an emerging theory that there were scribes (in different parts of Israel) working on different parts of the Pentateuch at the same time under the direction of Samuel (cf. 1 Sam. 10:25). This theory was first proposed by E. Robertson's The Old Testament Problem.
V. DATE
A. Genesis covers the period from the creation of this planet (or to its organization as a functioning place for human life, John H. Walton) to Abraham's family. It is possible to date Abraham's life from secular literature of the period. The approximate date would be 2000 B.C., the second millennium B.C. The basis for this is
1. father acted as priest to family (like Job)
2. life was nomadic following herds and flocks
3. migration of Semitic peoples during this period
B. The early events of Genesis 1-11 are literary events (possibly historical drama) but undatable by current available knowledge.
1. I personally have come to accept the earth's age as 4.6 billion years (i.e., 14.6 billion for the universe, cf. Hugh Ross' The Genesis Question and Creation and Time).
2. However, I also believe in the special creation of Adam and Eve at a much later period. It seems to me that Genesis is presented in some type of "historical" framework, but the historical aspect is fuzzy at the beginning (i.e., Genesis 1-3). Adam and Eve's children begin the civilizations of Mesopotamia (i.e., chapter 4). If this framework is to be maintained then Adam is a modern (Homo sapien) and not a more primitive Homo erectus. If this is true then there must be an evolutionary development in hominids (cf. Tyndale O T Commentaries, "Genesis" by Kidner and Who Was Adam? by Fazale Rana and Hugh Ross) as well as a special creation by God at a much later point in time. I am not completely comfortable with this, but it is the best I can do with my current understanding of the Bible and science. The book that has helped me think about these things is Bernard Ramm, The Christian View of Science and Scripture.
C. It must be remembered when studying Genesis that the historical events are recorded by Moses who led the people of God out of Egypt in either (1) 1445 B.C., based on 1 Kings 6:1; or (2) 1290 B.C., based on evidence from modern archaeology. Therefore, either by oral tradition, unknown written sources, or direct divine revelation, Moses records "how it all began" focusing on "who" and "why of creation," not "how" and "when"! Remember, Moses' education was in royal Egyptian schools.
D. This commentary (Genesis 1-11) was originally written in 2001. I struggled greatly with the relationship between Genesis 1 and my own modern western culture. A new book by John H. Walton, The Lost World of Genesis One, IVP (2009) has helped me see just how influenced I was by my own existential setting. I believe that proper hermeneutics begin with the original author's intent but it is obvious to me that my hermeneutical theory was better than my practice. This book by Walton is a paradigm shift in thinking about Genesis 1 as relating to order and function, not the material origins of the universe. It is truly an eye-opener. It has convinced me of a new way to view this crucial text that bypasses the debate over science vs. faith, old earth vs. young earth, evolution vs. special creation of species. I highly recommend the book to you!
VI. SOURCES FOR CORROBORATING THE HISTORICAL SETTING
A. Other Biblical books
1. Creation ‒ Psalms 8; 19; 33; 50; 104; 148 and the NT (cf. John 1:3; 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:16; Heb. 1:2)
2. Abraham's time ‒ Job
B. Archaeological sources (so many new cuneiform text have been found)
1. Earliest known literary parallel of the cultural setting of Genesis 1-11 is the Ebla cuneiform tablets from northern Syria dating about 2500 B.C., written in Akkadian.
2. Creation
a. The closest Mesopotamian account dealing with creation, Enuma Elish, dating from (1) NIV Study Bible, about 1900-1700 B.C. or (2) John H. Walton's Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, p. 21, about 1000 B.C. It was found in Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh and other copies were found at several other places. There are seven cuneiform tablets written in Akkadian that describe creation by Marduk.
(1) The gods, Apsu (fresh water-male) and Tiamat (salt water-female) had unruly, noisy children. These two gods tried to silence the younger gods.
(2) One of Ea and Damkina's children, Marduk (the chief god of the emerging city of Babylon), defeats Tiamat. He formed the earth and sky from her body.
(3) Ea formed humanity from another defeated god, Kingu, who was the male consort of Tiamat after the death of Apsu. Humanity came from Kingu's blood.
(4) Marduk was made chief of the Babylonian pantheon.
b. "The creation seal" is a cuneiform tablet which is a picture of a naked man and woman beside a fruit tree with a snake wrapped around the tree's trunk and positioned over the woman's shoulder as if talking to her.
The conservative Professor of Archaeology at Wheaton College, Alfred J. Hoerth, says that the seal is now interpreted as referring to prostitution. This is a good example of how artifacts from the past are interpreted differently by individuals and through time. This particular piece of evidence must be re-evaluated.
3. Creation and Flood ‒ The Atrahasis Epic records the rebellion of the lesser gods because of overwork and the creation of seven human couples (from clay, blood, and saliva) to perform the duties of these lesser gods. Humans were destroyed because of: (1) over population and (2) noise. Human beings were reduced in number by a plague, two famines and finally a flood, planned by Enlil. Atrahasis builds a boat and brings animals on board in order to save them from the waters. These major events are seen in the same order in Genesis 1-8. This cuneiform composition dates from about the same time as Enuma Elish and the Gilgamesh Epic, about 1900-1700 B.C. All are in Akkadian.
4. Noah's flood
a. A Sumerian tablet from Nippur, called Eridu Genesis, dating from about 1600 B.C., tells about Ziusudra and a coming flood.
(1) Enka, the water god, warns Ziusudra of a coming flood.
(2) Ziusudra, a king-priest, believes this revelation and builds a huge square boat and stocks it with all kinds of seeds.
(3) The flood lasted seven days.
(4) Ziusudra opened a window on the boat and released several birds to see if dry land had appeared.
(5) He also offered a sacrifice of an ox and sheep when he left the boat.
b. A composite Babylonian flood account from four Sumerian tablets, known as the Gilgamesh Epic originally dating from about 2500-2400 B.C., although the written composite form in cuneiform Akkadian, is much later (ca. 1900-1700 B.C.). It tells about a flood survivor, Utnapishtim, who tells Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, how he survived the great flood and was granted eternal life.
(1) Ea, the water god, warns of a coming flood and tells Utnapishtim (Babylonian form of Ziusudra) to build a boat.
(2) Utnapishtim and his family, along with selected healing plants, survived the flood.
(3) The flood lasted seven days.
(4) The boat came to rest in northern Persia, on Mt. Nisir.
(5) He sent out 3 different birds to see if dry land had yet appeared.
5. The Mesopotamian literature which describes an ancient flood are all drawing from the same source. The names often vary, but the plot is the same. An example is that Zivusudra, Atrahasis and Utnapishtim all represent the same human king.
6. The historical parallels to the early events of Genesis can be explained in light of mankind's pre-dispersion (Genesis 1-11) knowledge and experience of God. These true historical core memories have been elaborated and mythologicalized into the current flood accounts common throughout the world. The same can also be said not only of creation (Genesis1; 2) and the Flood (Genesis 6-9) but also of human and angelic unions (Genesis 6).
7. Patriarch's Day (Middle Bronze)
a. Mari tablets ‒ cuneiform legal (Ammonite culture) and personal texts in Akkadian from about 1700 B.C.
b. Nuzi tablets ‒ cuneiform archives of certain families (Horite or Hurrian culture) written in Akkadian from about 100 miles SE of Nineveh about 1500-1300 B.C. They record family and business procedures. For further specific examples, see John H. Walton's Ancient Israelite Literature in its Cultural Context, pp. 52-58
c. Alalak tablets ‒ cuneiform texts from Northern Syria from about 2000 B.C.
d. Some of the names found in Genesis are recorded as place names in the Mari Tablets: Serug, Peleg, Terah, and Nahor. Other biblical names were also common: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Laban, and Joseph. This shows that biblical names fit this time and place.
8. "Comparative historiographic studies have shown that, along with the Hittites, the ancient Hebrews were the most accurate, objective and responsible recorders of near eastern history." R. K Harrison, Biblical Criticism, p 5.
9. Archaeology has proven to be so helpful in establishing the historicity of the Bible. However, a word of caution is necessary. Archaeology is not an absolutely trustworthy guide because of
a. poor techniques in early excavations
b. various, very subjective interpretations of the artifacts that have been discovered
c. no agreed-upon chronology of the ancient Near East (although one is being developed from tree rings and pottery).
C. Egyptian creation accounts can be found in John H. Walton's, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1990) pp. 23-24, 32-34; also see Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible
1. In Egyptian literature, creation began with an unstructured, chaotic, primeval water. Creation was seen as a developing structure (hill) out of watery chaos.
2. In Egyptian literature from Memphis, creation occurred by the spoken word of Ptah.
3. Each of the major cities of Egypt had separate traditions emphasizing their patron deities.
D. A new book by John H. Walton, The Lost World of Genesis One; Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate, IVP, 2009, shows the relationship between the ANE beliefs about the divine and the cosmos in a new light. He asserts (and I agree) that it is not so much who copied who but the general cultural consensus of the whole ANE about the unity of the "natural" and "supernatural." All cultures shared this general perspective. Israel's was uniquely monotheistic but also shared the cultural perspectives.
SPECIAL TOPIC: MONOTHEISM
VII. LITERARY UNITS (CONTEXT)
A. Outline based on Moses' use of the phrase "the generations of" (toledoth):
1. origins of heaven and earth, Gen. 1:1-2:3
2. origins of humanity, Gen. 2:4-4:26
3. generations of Adam, Gen. 5:1-6:8
4. generations of Noah, Gen. 6:9-9:17
5. generations of the sons of Noah, Gen. 10:1-11:9
6. generations of Shem, Gen. 11:10-26
7. generations of Terah (Abraham), Gen. 11:27-25:11
8. generations of Ishmael, Gen. 25:12-18
9. generations of Isaac, Gen. 25:19-35:29
10. generations of Esau, Gen. 36:1-8
11. generations of the sons of Esau, Gen. 36:9-43
12. generations of Jacob, Gen. 37:1-50:26 (#1-11 have a Mesopotamian literary background but #12 has an Egyptian literary flavor.)
B. Theological outline:
1. creation for humanity and of humanity, Genesis 1-2
2. mankind and creation fall, Genesis 3
3. results of the Fall, Genesis 4-11
a. evil affects Cain and his family
b. evil affects Seth and his family
c. evil affects everyone
d. great flood
e. evil still present in Noah's family
f. mankind still in rebellion; the tower of Babel
g. God's dispersion
4. One man for all humanity (Gen. 3:15), Genesis 12-50 (Rom. 5:12-21)
a. Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3), Gen. 11:27-23:20
b. Isaac, Gen. 24:1-26:35
c. Jacob, Gen. 27:1-36:4
(1) Judah (the line of the Messiah)
(2) Joseph (double land inheritance), Gen. 37:1-50:26
VIII. MAIN TRUTHS
A. How did it all begin?
1. It began with God (Genesis 1-2). The Bible's world-view is not polytheism but monotheism. It does not focus on the "how" of creation but on the "who." It is short, but so powerful in its presentation. The Bible's theology was totally unique in its day though some of the words, patterns of activities, and topics are found in other Mesopotamian literature.
2. God wanted fellowship. The creation is only a stage for God to fellowship with man. This is a "touched planet" (cf. C. S. Lewis).
3. There is no possibility of understanding the rest of the Bible without Genesis 1,2-4 and 11-12.
4. Humans must respond by faith to what they understand of God's will (Gen. 15:6 and Romans 4).
B. Why is the world so evil and unfair? It was "very good" (Gen. 1:31), but Adam and Eve sinned (cf. Genesis 3; Rom. 3:9-18,23; 5:17-21). The terrible results are obvious:
1. Cain kills Abel (Genesis 4)
2. revenge of Lamech (Gen. 4:23-24)
3. unlawful unions (Gen. 6:1-4)
4. wickedness of man (Gen. 6:5,11-12; 8:21)
5. the drunkenness of Noah (Genesis 9)
6. descendants of Noah's sons (Genesis 10)
7. Tower of Babel (Genesis 11)
C. How is God going to fix it?
1. Messiah will come for all humans (Gen. 3:15)
2. God calls one to call all (Gen. 12:1-3 and Exod. 19:5-6, cf. Rom. 5:12-21)
3. God is willing to work with fallen mankind (Adam, Eve, Cain, Noah, Abraham, the Jews and Gentiles) and by His grace provides
a. promises
b. covenants (unconditional and conditional)
c. sacrifice
d. worship
(Dr. Utley has provided his Bible study material in several media formats. The written commentaries were mostly done while Dr. Utley was Professor of Hermeneutics at East Texas Baptist University between 1987-2003. He finished the whole Bible in 2019. They represent his latest theological thoughts.)
Originally from: www.freebiblecommentary.org
Study Guide Commentary Series: Introduction to Genesis
